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Drama (Introduction to literature)

Kifayatullah Buneri

Professor (Assistant)

Dept of English, University of Chitral, Pakistan

ki"ayat@gmail.com

What is Drama

General comments

Drama as a literary genre is realized in performance, which is why Robert

Di Yanni (quoted in Dukore) describes it as "staged art" (867). As a literary

form, it is designed for the theatre because characters are assigned roles

and they act out their roles as the action is enacted on stage. These

characters can be human beings, dead or spiritual beings, animals, or

abstract qualities. Drama is an adaptation, recreation and reflection of

reality on stage. Generally, the word, dramatist is used for any artist who is

involved in any dramatic composition either in writing or in performance.

It is difficult to separate drama from performance because during the stage

performance of a play, drama brings life experiences realistically to the

audience. It is the most concrete of all genres of literature.

In drama, the characters/actors talk to themselves and react to issues

according to the impulse of the moment. Drama is therefore presented in

dialogue.

Cont...

It is also the most active of other genres of literature because of the

immediate impact it has on the audience. It is used to inform, to educate to

entertain and in some cases to mobilize the audience.

Most people associate funny action or other forms of entertainment as

drama. An action could be dramatic yet it will not be classified as drama.

The dramatic is used for any situation or action which creates a sense of an

abnormality or the unexpected. Sometimes we use it to describe an action

that is demonstrated or exaggerated.

Drama is an imitation of life. Drama is different from other forms of

literature because of its unique characteristics. It is read, but basically, it is

composed to be performed, so the ultimate aim of dramatic composition is

for it to be presented on stage before an audience. It uses actors to convey

this message. This brings us to the issue of mimesis or imitation. It is this

mimetic impulse of drama that makes it appeal to people. Drama thrives

on action.

Cont...

The term drama is used at the following three different levels:

Performance: Drama is used for plays that are acted on stage or screen.

These plays are different from musical performances because they must

tell stories which are acted out by actors and actresses. You remember what

we said earlier about imitation or re-enactment and impersonation. These

actors and actresses must be playing roles by imitating other characters. It

means, therefore, that they must assume other people's personalities by

bearing different names, ages, occupation, nationalities, etc. Finally, they

must be conscious of themselves as actors by trying hard to pretend that

they are the characters they are representing.

Cont...

Composition: Drama is used to describe a dramatic composition which

employs language and pantomime to present a story or series of events

intended to be performed. Sometimes, especially with written

compositions, they may not be presented on stage but this does not stop it

from being drama. In as much as a play is enjoyed more when it is

performed, you can still read a play and be entertained by it.

Branch of Literature: Drama is a term used for that branch of literature

that covers dramatic composition. You know already that drama is a

literary art. The basic difference between drama and other forms of

literature (prose and poetry) is that drama is presented in dialogue from the

beginning to the end. Any information by the playwright is given in stage-

direction. We have dialogue in prose and poetry but they are interjected in

the course of the story.

Definition of Drama

There are many definitions of drama. Martin Esslin in Anatomy of Drama has

the following definitions of drama:

Drama can be seen as a manifestation of the play instinct as in children

who are playing mother and father.

Drama is something one goes to see, which is organized as something to be

seen.

It is an enacted fiction an art form based on mimetic action.

In arts, drama is the most elegant expression of thought nearest to the truth

(reality).

It is the most concrete form in which art can recreate human situation,

human relationship.

Cont...

Aristotle's definitions sum up these and other numerous definitions of drama

by different scholars. He defines drama simply as an imitation of an action. He

links it to the mimetic impulse in human beings like children playing father

and mother in a childhood play. This means that imitation is part of life.

Human beings have the desire to imitate others, situations or events.

However, Betolt Brecht insists that drama is not just an imitation of action, but

a tool for the demonstration of social conditions. It is not just an entertainment

but an instrument of political and social change.

From these definitions, we can conclude that drama is a way of creating or

recreating a situation, an articulation of reality through impersonation or re-

enactment. An action becomes drama if it is an imitation of an earlier action

real or imagined.

Origin of Drama

The word drama comes from the Greek verb "dran" which means 'to act'

or to perform. Many scholars trace the origin of drama to wordless actions

like ritual dances and mimes performed by dancers, masked players or

priests during traditional festivals or ceremonies. One account traces the

origin to ritual. Another account traces the origin to man's desire for

entertainment.

Scholars are divided on the origin of drama. Some trace the origin to

Greece but others insist that drama in its definitive form or pattern evolved

from Egypt which is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization in the

world. However, the account of tracing the origin of drama to Greece is

more plausible. The evolution is clearer and well-documented. Greek

drama evolved from religious festivals.

The Nature of Drama

Drama has a unique nature. It has developed and been improved upon by

various dramatists over the ages. It has also been influenced by the

developments and changes in the world. The unique nature of drama makes it

possible for it to be read and as also to be performed. Unlike the prose and

poetry which depend on narration, drama is presented only through dialogue.

The novel is divided in chapters and the poem is written mostly in stanzas,

drama is presented in acts and scenes, movements or parts. William Shakespeare

made the five-act structure the standard for his plays. Each dramatist is free to

adopt his/her own style.

Drama can be read and enjoyed by people in the privacy of their homes, people

also watch and enjoy the plays as an audience in a theatre when the plays are

presented on stage.

Imitation in drama involves a story. For it to be drama a story must be told

through dialogue as the characters interact among themselves and that story

must have a beginning, middle and an end.

Functions of Drama

It is an important branch of literature and the most concrete of all art

forms. Drama is used to entertain, inform and educate people. You can see

that it is the most effective tool for mass mobilization by the government

and private agencies.

Of all the creative artists, the dramatist is in the best position to mirror his

society and to effect social reforms. This helps to imprint social conditions

realistically in the minds of the audience. Its message is therefore

immediate.

In the Medieval period, drama was used to elucidate the message of the

gospel through the re-enactment of the biblical stories during mass.

Dramatists can use their works to help to shape the future of the societies.

Elements of Drama

Elements means the essential parts of something; following are the

essential parts of drama:

Plot

Action

Characters

Dialogue

Setting

Theme

Elements of Drama: Plot

Plot is the structure of the actions which is ordered and presented in order to

achieve particular emotional and artistic effects in a play. It helps to give the

play an organic unity and a coherence that makes the play easy to understand.

A good play should therefore possess a unified plot. Plot in simple terms is the

arrangement of a story in such a way that there will be a sequential, logical

and chronological order. Aristotle maintains that incidents presented, must be

according to the law of probability and necessity. The plot should be arranged

in such a way that the action starts from the beginning rises to a climax and

falls to a resolution.

Some people confuse plot with story. To them, plot means a story which the

play tells. A story is a series of incidents whose development does not

necessarily depend on each other which means that the incidents may or may

not be related or connected. Plot on the other hand, is the way the story is

arranged and it thrives on causality and logical unity.

Dramatic plot is also expected to produce a result or an effect on the audience.

Cont...

The success of a play depends mainly on the plot. It helps the audience or

reader to understand the theme and the motivations of the characters in the

play.

Playwrights design their plots in most cases, to achieve different purposes like

to create tragic, comic, or ironic effects. As the plot progresses, it arouses the

reader's curiosity and expectations concerning future events in the play

especially the fate of some characters. This is called suspense. A good

playwright makes an effective use of suspense to sustain his audience. Plot is

a highly specialized form of experience.

There is an extent to which a person's life can be patterned. But in drama,

every event is part of a carefully designed pattern and process. And this is what

we call plot. In a good plot, the interest of spectators has to be deeply engaged

and continuously sustained. This means that the plot must be arranged in such

a way that the interest must be aroused and engaged by events that make up a

process capable of being represented on stage.

Structure of the Plot

A good plot should have a beginning , middle, and an end.

Beginning is further divided in:

Exposition: The beginning contains the exposition or the setting forth of

information about earlier events, the identity of characters and the present

situation.

Point of Attack: The moment at which the main story starts as a potential

conflict is identified. This is more obvious in classical plays usually, is

focused early on the potential conflict or a question and its resolution leads

to the end of the play.

Inciting Incident :This incident is usually an occurrence that sets the main

action in motion. A good example is in found in Oedipus Rex. In the play,

there is a plague in Thebes, the people are suffering and lamenting.

Cont...

The middle is made up of series of complications. A complication is a new

element which changes the direction of the action. It leads to the discovery

of new information. The series of complications culminate in crises and

climax. Climax is the high point of the story, where a culmination of events

create the peak of the conflict.

The end is the last part of the play. Here issues are unravelled, untied and

resolved. This part of the story shows the result of the climax, and its

effects on the characters, setting and proceeding events and serves as the

conclusion of the story.

It is important to note here that you may not find all these elements in one

play. Each playwright adopts his own style. Remember that Aristotle based

his theory and postulations on already –written Greek plays. Apparently, he

read and studied the plays critically to arrive at his conclusions.

Types of Plot

There are different types of plots and each is designed for a particular purpose.

Some plots, for instance, are designed to achieve tragic effect and others the

effects of comedy, satire, or romance. However all plays do not have what we

might call good plots, that is, with the beginning, middle and end. So, we have

different types of plots.

In a play, as said earlier, we have the main plot and subject (sub) plot. The

main plot deals with the major events and the sub plot deals with other

incidents which can be complete and interesting stories on their own. A skilful

playwright uses the sub plot to advance our appreciation and understanding of

the main plot.

Aristotle divides plot into two – complex and simple plots. A simple plot is

that in which the action is simple and continuous and in which a change of

fortune takes place without reversal of the situation and without recognition.

In a complex plot, on the other hand, the change is accompanied by a reversal

of the situation or by recognition or by both.

Cont...

Aristotle also identified two types of plots (a) the unified plot and (b) the

episodic plot. He refers to the unified plot as the well-made plot. In the

unified plot, the incidents are presented in a logical order and there is a

causal arrangement. What do we mean by causal arrangement? The play

starts from the beginning followed by the middle and the incidents in the

middle are consequences of what happened in the beginning and these are

resolved in the end. It is a kind of cause and effect presentation.

In episodic plot, there is no causal relationship between the incidents. The

only unifying factor is that the incidents are related or happening to one

man. In unified plot, the removal of any incident affects the organic

structure of the play, but in episodic plot, you can remove an aspect of the

plot without changing or destroying the plot . It means, therefore, that the

part that was removed is not necessary.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA: ACTION

In simple terms, action is the process of doing something or the

performance itself. If somebody slaps you and you react, there is an action.

The series of events that constitute the plot in any literary work is referred

to as action. It includes what the characters say, do, think and in some

cases, fail to do. In drama, especially during performance, you see the

characters moving around to perform certain tasks, talk to one another,

laugh, cry, fight, shoot or do any thing according to the needs of the

moment. All these are dramatic actions.

Drama is the only genre of literature in which the story is presented in

dialogue from the beginning to the end. Dramatic action includes facial

expression, gestures and movements. So, what makes dialogue dramatic is

the presence of action.

It is the action that pushes the plot and helps to advance the theme.

Cont...

•The action in drama is usually organized in a climatic order with the scenes

increasing in interest by increasing suspense and emotional intensity .

•Dramatic action also includes what the character fails to do. In Hamlet, the

popular quote 'to be or not to be' refers to the action.

•You can see that all the actions mentioned here are logical. For the action

to be logical, the characters must be well- motivated. Motivation is the

drive behind every action a character takes in a play . There must be a

reason for any action taken by every character in the play. In drama,

because the action is presented in dialogue and the playwright does not

have the space to explain the action like the novelist.

Types of Dramatic Action

Action in drama could be presented in the following three forms:

Physical Action

The physical action in drama refers to the movements made by a character in the

play. It is visible and may or may not involve dialogue. Physical action could in

form of movements/gestures, mime or pantomime.

Reported Action

In dramatic action, sometimes, it is not possible to present every action on stage.

This could be as a result of the prevalent convention or because the action

cannot be realized on stage.

Mental Action

Mental action is an action that takes place in the character's mind. In most cases,

mental action is manifested in facial expressions.

Elements of Drama: Character & Characterization

•Characterization is the playwright's imaginative creation of characters that can

effectively dramatize his story. The action of the play is presented through such

characters. He does so by imbuing the characters with certain recognizable

human traits and qualities. These qualities include physical attributes, moral,

psychological and emotional dispositions, their attitude towards other

characters and situations, and so on.

•The playwright uses the characters to explicate his theme and propel the plot,

His ability to craft the play in such a way that each character blends well in the

plot is called characterization. These characters are presented and they develop

in the course of the action.

•The important elements in characterization are consistency and motivation .

•The ability to create characters and to ensure that they blend/suit the action of

the play is what we refer to as characterization. What is created is called

character.

Types of Characters

There are different types of characters in drama. They include the protagonist,

the dynamic character, the static character, the flat character, the round

character, and stereotypes.

Protagonist vs antagonist: He is the main character and at the centre of

the story. He is called the protagonist. Usually the story revolves around

him and in fact the story is about him. He is easily identifiable because he

stands out over and above most other characters. Everything revolves

around him as he influences the action that he is going through. He lives to

sustain or oppose what happens to him. His role is usually central to the

development of the theme, and whatever happens to him or whatever he

does has much significance to the outcome of the story. the opponent is

called an antagonist.

Cont...

Dynamic/ Round Character: This is a character that changes according to the

course of events in the story. He may or may not be the protagonist or the hero.

In most cases, he grows from innocence to maturity or from ignorance to

knowledge, so he is consistently alert to his environment with its attendant

problem and reacts accordingly. He is found almost everywhere in the story. In

his own unique way, he participates actively as much as possible in the course

of the action. He seems to have no special alignment to any group but tries not

to lose his credibility or acceptability.

Static/Flat/Stock Character : Here the character is complex and does not

change in any basic way in the course of the story. He is presented in outline

and without much individualization. He is usually stable and is said to be static

because he retains essentially the same outlook, attitudes, values and

dispositions from the beginning of the story to the end of the story. He is the

opposite of the round character but lakes complexity in term of presentation. He

is presented with a few and broad strokes.

ELEMENTS OF DRAMA: DIALOGUE

•Dialogue is a discussion between two or more people. In literary works, it refers

to a composition in a conversational form. In the novel it is incorporated in the

story, that is, as the story progresses, the novelist gives two or more characters

the opportunity to discuss or comment on certain issues and the story continues

in prose form. However, in drama, the entire story is presented in dialogue.

•Dialogue is a highly specialized form of conversation that is designed to suit

various contexts and modes of drama. The dialogue is designed in a way that it

must be heard and understood by the audience. As a result, the continuity of the

dialogue should be marked out clearly at every point.

Cont...

Dialogue in drama is expected to embody these literary and stylistic values:

It advances the action in a definite way because it is not used for mere

ornamentation or decoration.

It is consistent with the character of the speakers, their social positions and

special interests. It varies in tone and expression according to nationalities.

It gives the impression of naturalness without being actual, verbatim record

of what may have been said, since fiction is concerned with "the

semblance of reality," not reality itself.

It presents interplay of ideas and personalities among the people

conversing; it sets forth a conversational give and take and not simply a

series of remarks of alternating speakers.

Elements of Drama: Setting

Setting is the location of a play. It is the time and place when and where

the action of the play takes place. Setting is very important in a play

because it helps us to appreciate the background of the play. Also in

productions it helps the designers to design appropriate locale, atmosphere,

and costume for the play. You can identify the setting through the names of

characters. Some playwrights use known landmarks through dialogue or in

stage direction.

Setting identifies the time and place in which the events occur. It consists

of the historical period, the moment, day and season in which the incidents

take place. It also includes the sceneries in the performance which are

usually found in the preliminary descriptions.

Types of Setting

Geographical/Physical/Occupational: This is the actual geographical location of

the story and whatever surrounds the place where the story is located. It also

includes the manner of daily living of the people. This helps in locating the

story; for example, it helps you to know if the action of the play takes place in

an urban centre or a village, or a bush, or a market place and so on. You can

identify the physical setting easily in some plays because the playwright

mentions some known landmarks like the names of towns or other important

places in the town.

In the play, Hamlet, the physical setting is easy to identify because of the fact

that two of the major characters in the play are addressed as the "Prince of

Denmark" and the "King of Denmark".

Physical setting also includes the manner of daily living of the people. This

helps in locating the story; for example, it tells if the play has an urban or rural

setting?

Cont...

Temporal/Historical Setting: This is the period in which a story takes place. This

includes the date, the season, the general atmosphere in the locale like war, fuel

scarcity, democratic or military rule. This, like the physical setting, could be

deduced from the dialogue or from the stage direction. It could be stated in some

commentaries, especially the ones on the background of the play. Sometimes,

some publishers include the commentaries in the play. In Arms and the Man for

instance, the opening part of Act 1, a date is given in the stage direction. This

gives the reader a clue to the historical setting of the play.

General Environmental Setting: The social, moral, emotional, mental and

religious backgrounds of the story. This is highlighted through dialogue, stage

direction and the characters interpersonal relationships. In Arms and the Man for

instance, George Bernard Shaw presents a graphic picture of the Bulgarian way

of life. (The playwright "was able to pin the action down to actual geographical

locations and to a real life war. He took care to incorporate descriptions of

Bulgarian life" The playwright admits that many aspects of the play were based

on actual facts.

Elements of Drama: Theme

Theme refers to the meaning of the play. Theme is the main idea or lesson

to be learned from the play. In some cases, the theme of a play is obvious;

other times it is quite subtle. Some General Themes Theme Conflict--

between two individuals Conflict between man and a supernatural power

Conflict between the man and himself.

Theme is considered as the unifying element that defines the dramatized

idea of the play. It is the over-all sense or implication of the action. It

defines the problem, emphasizes the ethical judgment and suggest attitude

or course of action that eliminates the crisis is an acceptable way.

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